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| The End of Bipolarity |
The concept of Bipolarity has significant implications on the global order. After the collapse of the Berlin wall in 1989, there was a historic chain of events that led to the collapse of the second world and the end of the Cold War.
Germany was unified, the eight European countries one after another That were part of Soviet bloc replaced their communist governments.
The Soviet Union was supported by ordinary men and women, later disintegrated. The disintegration of USSR led to various changes in the world politics be it social, economic or political.
There were series of events like introduction of democratic politics, Capitalism in post-communist regimes, mid- east crises, Gulf war and the 21st century Arab Spring.
The Soviet System
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) emerged after the Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917.
The Socialist Revolution was influenced by the ideals of socialism and the need for egalitarian society, as against the capitalism.
Thus, this system tried to abolish the institution of private property and promoted a society based on principles of Equality.
The makers of Soviet system gave priority to the state and the institution of the party.
The Soviet political system was centered around the Communist Party. No other political party was allowed by the state.
In terms of economy, everything was planned and controlled by the state.
The East European countries liberated by the Soviet Union from the fascists forces after the Second World War, came under the control of the USSR.
The same political and economic system of USSR was implied in these countries.
This group of countries was called the Second World or the Socialist bloc.
These countries were held together under the Warsaw Pact led by USSR. The USSR was the leader of the bloc.
Characteristics of Soviet System
The characteristics of Soviet System are discussed below After the Second World War, the Soviet Union became a powerful nation.
Except the US, its economy was developed as compared to other nations.
It had a complex communications network, vast energy resources including oil. iron and steel, machinery production and a transport sector which connected its Remotest areas with efficiency.
It also had its own domestic consumer Industry which produced everything from pins to cars.
Although there was a difference in their quality as compared to the Western Capitalist countries.
A minimum standard of living was assured for all the citizens under the Soviet System.
Basic necessities like health, education, childcare and other welfare schemes were "subsidised by the government.
Unemployment was not there at that time. Assets like land and produce were owned and controlled by the Soviet state.
Thus, State ownership was supreme form of ownership.
Drawbacks of Soviet System
There were some drawbacks in Soviet System:
The Soviet System became very bureaucratic and authoritarian in nature. It became difficult for its citizens to express their problems.
Problems like lack of democracy and absence of freedom of speech stifled the people to express their disagreements against the government in jokes and cartoons.
The Soviet System was based on one-party system represented by Communist Party which had tight control over all institutions. There was lack of accountability towards the people.
The party refused to fulfil the needs and aspirations of the people in fifteen different republics to manage their own affairs including their cultural affairs.
Russia dominated everything and people from other republics felt neglected and suppressed.
The Soviet Union spent a lot on technology and infrastructure to match the US military capabilities.
The Soviet Union lagged behind the West in technology, infrastructure.e.g transport, power and most importantly, in fulfilling the political or economic aspirations of citizens.
The Soviet System was weakened after the Afghanistan invasion in 1979 as its productivity and technology fell miserably behind that of West. It led to shortages in all consumer goods.
Food import increased every year. The Soviet economy turned stagnant in the late 1970's.
Gorbachev and the Disintegration
Mikhail Gorbachev of the Communist Party of Soviet Union became General Secretary in 1985He favoured reforms in this system as it would keep USSR ahead from the Western powers.
The reforms were also necessary to keep the USSR abreast of the information and technological revolutions.
His decisions to maintain normal relations with the West, democratise and reform the Soviet Union had some other effects.
Series of events were responsible for the disintegration of USSR. Some of them are discussed below
Crises in the Socialist Bloc-People in many East European countries which were part of Soviet bloc started protest against their own governments and USSR.
Without right intervention from USSR at the right time, Communist governments in the second world collapsed one after another.
Policies of Gorbachev Gorbachev identified the economic and political problems of USSR and started a series of reforms, with its intention to revive economy.
This was a deviation from the Communist policies and was more associated with the market economy. Many communist leaders opposed these reforms and they encouraged a coup in 1991.
By then people experienced freedom and did not want the old style rule of the Communist Party.
Opposition Against the Coup Boris Yeltsin, who won popular election in Russian Republic, protested against the coup and centralised control of USSR.
Shift of Power Power began to shift from Soviet Centre to Republics, especially in the European states which were part of the Soviet Union, these states saw themselves as Sovereign states.
Causes for Disintegration
Some of the reasons which are mainly responsible for the disintegration of Soviet Union are discussed below Internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions failed to meet the aspirations of the people.
The economy of the Soviet Union became stagnant which led to severe consumer shortages and disbelief and doubt in the system.
The Soviet economy used much of its resources in maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal and the development of its satellite states in Eastern Europe and within the Soviet System, which led to huge economic burden.
Ordinary citizens also became aware about the economic advancement of the West and disparities between their system and the systems of West.
The Soviet Union too became stagnant due to rampant corruption, the unwillingness to allow more openness in government and the centralisation of authority in a vast land.
People were alienated by slow and stifling administration that was no more accountable to the people.
The party bureaucrats gained more privileges then ordinary citizens. People did not associate with the system and with the rulers and the government lost citizens' support.
Gorbachev carried out his reforms and loosened the system.
There were sections of Soviet society which felt that Gorbachev should have moved much faster and were disappointed and impatient with his methods.
Others, especially members of Communist Party felt that their power and privileges were eroding and Gorbachev was moving too quickly. In this 'tug of war', Gorbachev lost support on all sides.
Another reason was the rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within various republics including Russia and the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Lativa and Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia.
As people in these areas felt alienated from the Central Asians and from each other.
Consequences of Disintegration Some of the consequences which emerged after the collapse of Soviet Union are discussed below
End of Cold War Confrontations
It led to the end of Cold War confrontations. Basically, the ideological dispute related to socialism and capitalism was over This further led to end of arms race and accumulation of nuclear weapons.
Since, the ideological dispute had engaged the military of the two blocs, it triggered a massive arms race and accumulation of nuclear weapons and had led to the existence of military blocs, the end of the confrontation demanded an end to this arms race and a possible new peace.
Change Power Relations in World Politics
As power equation in the world politics changed. It left only two possibilities i.e. unipolar system or multipolar system that would dominate the world .
As a result, the US became the sole superpower which was supported by the capitalist system. This made the capitalist system as the dominant economic system globally.
Institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund became powerful advisors to all these countries since they gave them loans for their transitions to capitalism.
Emergence of New Countries
The end of Soviet bloc led to the emergence of many new countries. All these countries had their own independent choices.
For instance, the Baltic and East European countries wanted to be a part of European Union and become part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
The Central Asian countries wanted to take advantage of their geographical location and continue their close ties with the West, the US, China and others.
Thus, the international arena witnessed many new players each with its own identity, interests, economic and political difficulties.
Shock Therapy in Post Communist Regimes
Shock Therapy is known as the model of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system.
In Russia, Central Asia and East Europe that was capitalist system influenced by the World Bank and the IMF Though the direction and features were quite similar, but shock therapy varied in intensity and speed amongst the former second world countries.
Each of these countries was required to make a total shift to a capitalist economy, which meant rooting out c any structures evolved during the Soviet period.
Following are the features of shock therapy:
It meant that private ownership was to be the dominant pattern of ownership of property.
Privatisation of state assets and corporate ownership patterns were to be immediately brought in." Collective farms were to be replaced by private farming and capitalism in agriculture.
This transition ruled out any alternate or 'third way, other than state-controlled socialism or capitalism.
Consequences of Shock Therapy
The shock therapy administered in 1990s did not lead the people into the promised state of mass consumption rather it had following adverse effects
Destruction of Economy It brought ruin to the economies and disaster upon the people of the entire region.
In Russia, the large state-controlled industrial complex almost collapsed, as about 90 per cent of its industries were put up for sale to private individuals and companies.
Since, the restructuring was carried out through market forces and not by government-directed industrial policies, it led to the virtual disappearance of entire industries.
This was called the largest garage sale in history, as valuable industries were undervalued and sold at throwaway prices.
Though all citizens were given vouchers to participate in the sales, most citizens sold their vouchers in the black market because they needed the money.
Decline of Russian Currency and Import of Food The value of the ruble, declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings .
The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security and Russia started to import food The real GDP of Russia in 1999 was below what it was in 1989.
The old trading structure broke down with no alternative in its place.
System of Social Welfare Destroyed
The old system social welfare was systematically destroyed.
The of of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty.
The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society and the academic and intellectual manpower disintegrated or migrated.
Lack of Democratic Institutions
The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and priority.
The constitutions of all these countries were drafted in a hurry and most, including Russia, had a strong executive President with the widest possible powers that rendered elected parliaments relatively weak.
In Central Asia, the Presidents had great powers and several of them became very authoritarian.
For example, the Presidents of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan appointed themselves to power first for ten years and then extended it for another ten years.
They allowed no dissent or opposition. A judicial culture and independence of the judiciary was yet to be established in most of these countries.
Steps Taken Under Shock Therapy
Shock therapy also involved a drastic change in the external orientation of these economies. It was believed that development can be done through more trade.
Thus, a sudden and complete switch to free trade was considered essential. Now, the main engines of change were Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and the free trade regime.
This transition also involved a break up of the existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc. Gradually, these states got absorbed into the Western economic system.
As a result the Western capitalist states became the leaders and thus guided and controlled the developments of the region through various agencies and organisations.
Most of these economies, especially Russia, started reviving in 2000, ten years after their independence.
The reason for the revival for most of their economies was the export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals. Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas producers.
Other countries have gained because of the oil pipelines that cross their territories for which they get rent. Some amount of manufacturing has restarted.
Tensions and Conflicts
Most of the former Soviet Republics were prone to conflicts and had many civil wars and insurgencies. There was a violent secessionist movements in Russia's two republics i.e Chechnya and Dagestan.
Growing involvement of outside powers made situation more worst and complicated.
Facts Related to Tensions and Conflicts Some facts related to tensions and conflicts in these republics are as follows :
Secessionist Movements:
In Russia, two republics, Chechnya and Dagestan, have had violent secessionist movements. Moscow's method of dealing with the Chechen rebels and indiscriminate military bombings have led to many human rights violations but failed to deter the aspirations for independence.
Sectarian Conflicts:
In Central Asia, Tajikistan witnessed a Civil War that went on for ten years till 2001. The region as a whole has many sectarian conflicts. In Azerbaijan's province of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local Armenians want to secede and join Armenia. In Georgia, the demand for independence has come from two provinces, resulting in a Civil War. There are movements against the existing regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan and Georgia. Countries and provinces are fighting over river waters. All this has led to instability, making life difficult for the ordinary citizen.
Reasons for Tensions and Conflicts
Reasons for tensions and conflicts in these areas Regions with Vast Hydrocarbon Resources The Central Asian Republics are areas with vast hydrocarbon resources, which have brought them economic benefit. Central Asia has also become a zone of competition between outside powers and oil companies.
Establishment of Military Bases
The region is next to Russia, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan and close to West Asia. However, Russia perceives these states as its 'Near Abroad' and believes that they should be under Russian influence. China has interests here because of the oil resources and the Chinese have begun to settle around the borders and conduct trade.
Conflicts for Independence
In Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia split into two independent countries i.e. Czechs and Slovaks. But the most severe conflict took place in the Balkan republics of Yugoslavia. After 1991, it broke apart with several provinces like Croatia, Slovenia and and Herzegovina declaring independence. Ethnic Serbs opposed this and a massacre of non-Serb Bosnians followed. The NATO intervention and the bombing of Yugoslavia followed the inter-ethnic Civil War.
New Entities in World Politics
Russia or the Russian Federation is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia .It is the largest country in the world, encompassing one-eighth of Earth's inhabitable landmass. Russia extends across eleven time zones and shares land boundaries with fourteen countries. It is the world's ninth-most populous country and Europe's most populous country. The country's capital and largest city is Moscow. Saint Petersburg is Russia's cultural centre and second-largest city. Other major urban areas include Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, and Kazan.
Thereafter, the pace of change accelerated. In June 1990 the Congress of the Russian republic proclaimed that Russian laws took precedence over Soviet laws, and the following year Boris Yeltsin became the republic's first democratically elected president.
An abortive coup in August 1991 by hard-liners opposed to Gorbachev's reforms led to the collapse of most Soviet government organizations, the abolition of the Communist Party's leading role in government, and the dissolution of the party itself. Republic after republic declared its "sovereignty," and in December, when the Soviet Union was formally dissolved, Russia was established as an independent country.
Russia
Russia has a mixed economy, with enormous natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas. It has the world's ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by PPP.
The large service sector accounts for 62% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (32%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, making up only 5% of total GDP. [
Russia has a low official unemployment rate of 4.1%. Its foreign exchange reserves are the world's fifth-largest, worth $540 billion.
It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's sixth-largest. Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest importer.
It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted and Northern Asia. It is High regional disparity is also an issue.
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces-and there are also two independent arms of service:
the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops. As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2-20 million reserve personnel.
It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18-27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.
Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines, and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.
Russia maintains the world's fourth-highest military expenditure, spending $61.7 billion in 2020. In 2021
it was the world's second-largest arms exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry, producing most of its own military equipment .
India's Relations with Russia and Post-Communist Countries
India's relations with Russia are an important aspect of India's foreign policy. Indo-Russian relations are submerged in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by popular perceptions.
During the Cold War era, both entered into various agreements allowing India to jointly produce military equipment. Both the nations share a vision of a multipolar world order. Here, multipolar world order means
Existence of several powers in the international system
• Collective security (in which an attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all countries and requires a collective response)
• Greater regionalism,
• Negotiated settlements of international conflicts, An independent foreign policy for all countries, and
• Decision making through bodies like the UN should be strengthened, democratised, and empowered.
As per the Strategic Agreement of 2001, both the countries have signed more than 80 bilateral agreements.
India is benefitted from Russia on several issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and balancing its relation with China. Indian culture and Hindi films well popular in USSR. A number of Indian artists went to soviet union.
Central Asian States
Sate Central Asia is also known as Middle Asia.
It is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
In the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by Iranian peoples, populated by Eastern Iranian speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae.
After expansion by Turkic peoples, Central Asia also became the homeland for the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Tatars, Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Uyghurs; Turkic languages largely replaced the Iranian languages spoken in the area, with the exception of Tajikistan and areas where Tajik is spoken.
Central Asia (2019) has a population of about 72 million people, in five countries: Kazakhstan (pop. 19 million), Kyrgyzstan (7 million), Tajikistan (10 million), Turkmenistan (6 million), and Uzbekistan (35 million).
Balkans States
The Balkans also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions.
The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the whole of Bulgaria.
The Balkan Peninsula is bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the northwest, the Ionian Sea in the southwest, the Aegean Sea in the south, the Turkish straits in the east, and the Black Sea in the northeast.
Arab Spring in the 21st Century
The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across the Middle East in 2010.
The 21st century witnessed the emergence of new developments for democracies and democratisation in West Asian countries.
The Arab Spring emerged in Tunisia took its roots where the struggle against corruption, unemployment and poverty was started by the people.
This protest later turned into a political movement because the people blamed autocratic as a cause for existing problems.
Then, the demand for democracy that started in Tunisia spread throughout the Muslim-dominated Arab Countries in West Asia.
Hosni Mubarak, who had been in power in Egypt since 1979 also collapsed as a result of the massive democratic protests.
In addition, the influence of Arab Spring was also visible in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya and Syria where similar protests by the people led to democratic awakening throughout the region.
Causes of Arab Spring
The causes of the Arab spring can be classified as Economic, Social and sudden causes. These were
Economic Causes
The global crises played an important role in the rising of the Arab spring. Such as the downfall in the oil prices during 2008-09.
The rise in price of food leading to food crises gave rise to the political unrest especially in poor countries.
Increase in unemployment especially among the youths and females was one of the most important causes behind Arab Spring.
Social Causes
• Youth bulge, education and awareness among the people and democracy also gave rise to the Arab Spring.
• The demand for political freedom and removal of economic inequalities was one of the major cause behind Arab Spring.
The media and internet made the transmission of information and news throughout the world. Mass media declared Arab Spring as Social Network Revolution'.
Sudden Cause
Self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazig a street hawker of Tunisia gave a sudden rise to the Arab spring. His suicide became a means for the occurrence of Tunisian Revolution and widespread Arab Spring.
Consequences of Arab Spring
The various consequences of Arab Spring are enumerated below It helped in the removal of the Authoritarian rulers from Tunisia, Libiya and Egypt.
Keeping in view the fate of Bin Ali, Qadhafi and Hosni Mubarak, Baharain granted social and economic rights to their respective citizens.
Arab Spring marked the formation of a public political sphere where common people could discuss politics at public places.
The Arab spring was deliberated as a good attempt towards democracy by the world.